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Bees avoid specific plants like rumex while harvesting wax across precise three-score pace ranges. Overnight foragers flip onto their backs to guard their wings from heavy dew. Classical scholars debate whether young bees hatch from flowers or emerge from a solitary king. Pliny notes that larvae sit like poultry, transforming from white maggots into distinct winged ranks.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. → CHAP.
A king bee commands absolute obedience, flying only when a clipped wing fails to ground the swarm. In Cos, Pamphile harvested silk-worm webs to weave sheer garments that exposed the female form while covering it. Locusts deposit autumn egg masses underground, multiplying in dry seasons while wet springs rot the eggs. Small throat worms choke parent locusts immediately after laying, ending their destructive lifespan.
CHAP. 17. (17.)—THE MODE OF GOVERNMENT OF THE BEES. → CHAP.
Ants store grain by gnawing seeds to prevent underground sprouting and drying wet stores after rainfall. They gather on full moons to hold structured stock markets and stand out as the only creatures besides humans that bury their dead. Nature grants diverse horns to quadrupeds, turning ram horns into offensive weapons and pointing Troglodytae cattle horns downward. Human eyes uniquely vary in shade, with deep-seated goat-like eyes providing superior vision.
CHAP. 36. (30.)—ANTS. → CHAP.
Night sight allows rare individuals like Tiberius Caesar to see clearly in darkness immediately upon waking. Human teeth emerge at seven months, whereas gladiators who refuse to blink gain an invincible advantage in combat. Lungs act as internal air laboratories, expanding spongy cells to regulate body heat and thirst. The chameleon possesses the largest lungs relative to its body, leaving no room for other internal organs.
CHAP. 54.—THE THEORY OF SIGHT—PERSONS WHO CAN SEE BY NIGHT.
Sacrificial livers signal political fortunes, as seen when Augustus found rolled liver lobes predicting a doubled empire. Man possesses eight ribs, while horned animals carry thirteen and serpents possess thirty distinct bony curves. Thick blood creates courageous temperaments, whereas thin blood enhances intelligence and dark blood marks male animals. Bull blood hardens rapidly into deadly poison, contrasting with non-coagulating stag and boar blood.
CHAP. 73.—THE LIVER: IN WHAT ANIMALS, AND IN WHAT PART THERE…
Blood retreats during sudden terror, leaving human faces pale while internal bile drives fiery redness. Apes mirror human anatomy through lower eyelashes, long thumbs, paired mammæ, and identical internal visceral arrangements. Roman society witnessed extreme physical forms when priests of Cybele self-castrated without fatal consequence. Emperor Nero paraded rare hermaphrodite horses yoked to his royal car to display strange natural curiosities.
CHAP. 91.—ANIMALS WHICH ARE WITHOUT BLOOD AT CERTAIN PERIODS OF…
Testes location varies across quadrupeds, adhering internally in birds while dolphin and elephant organs remain completely hidden inside the abdomen. Simple substances like butter, mare's milk cheese, and liquorice appease hunger and thirst during long journeys. Pompey introduced dark Indian ebony to Rome during his grand triumph over King Mithridates. This exotic wood resists flaming flame and burns with a sweet aromatic perfume.
CHAP. 110.—THE TESTES—THE THREE CLASSES OF EUNUCHS. → CHAP.
An Indian thorn closely resembles precious ebony but flashes fire instantly when brought near a lantern. Bactrian bdellium yields a bitter wax-colored gum called hadrobolon, which emits powerful aromas when steeped in wine. Merchants adulterate genuine bdellium using crushed almonds or scordastum bark, forcing buyers to test smell, weight, and fire reaction. Asarum acts as wild nard, bearing ivy-like leaves and purple blossoms harvested along shaded slopes.
CHAP. 10. (5.)—THE INDIAN THORN. → CHAP. 27.
Clustered Indian amomum fetches sixty denarii per pound when its unwrinkled red leaves resemble pomegranate foliage. Arab goat herds gather ladanum resin as animals crop sweet shrub shoots, catching sticky juices on shaggy beards. Cyprian harvesters comb ladanum directly from goat coats after morning dew mixes with floating dust. Myrobalanum nuts from Petra yield aromatic oils highly prized for luxury Roman unguents.
CHAP. 28.—AMOMUM.—AMOMIS. → CHAP. 46.—MYROBALANUM.
Egyptian palm fruit called adipsos smells like quince and produces potent unguents before fully ripening. Syrian galbanum exudes from giant fennel, repelling dangerous serpents when burnt to create heavy smoke. Early Trojan sacrifices used no incense or complex perfumes, relying solely on cedar and citrus smoke. Modern luxury blends diverse natural aromatics into unified unguents, elevating simple olive oil and rose extracts into high fashion.
CHAP. 47. (22.)—PHŒNICOBALANUS. → BOOK XIII.
Ancient perfume centers constantly lost dominance as Corinthian iris gave way to Cyzicus and Cilician saffron was replaced by Rhodean oils. Small Phoenician cedars yield aromatic berries, while non-rotting timber provided wood for Apollo's sacred temple statues. Egyptian thorn gum sets the quality standard at three denarii per pound by adhering cleanly to teeth. Sarcocolla gum distils from specialized trees, serving as a vital medium for ancient painters and physicians.
CHAP. 2.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF UNGUENTS—TWELVE PRINCIPAL…
Papyrus paper production expanded after Alexander founded Alexandria, replacing earlier palm leaves, tree bark, lead sheets, and linen. Eumenes of Pergamum developed sheepskin parchment when Egyptian export bans restricted papyrus trade across the Mediterranean. Citrus wood tables command fortunes when grain forms wavy tiger lines or spiral panther circles. Submerging green citrus timber in ocean water hardens the grain and protects tables from heat warping.
CHAP. 21.—THE PAPYRUS: THE USE OF PAPER; WHEN IT WAS FIRST…
Wild andrachle trees display frozen-looking bark and evergreen foliage, contrasting with lettuce-leaf marine shrubs growing beneath sea waves. Maronean wine possessed such immense strength that Homer described mixing one part wine with twenty parts water. Consul Mucianus observed modern Thracian vintages requiring eighty parts water to dilute a single measure of dark aromatic wine. Opimian wine from the harvest of 633 AUC aged into bitter honey-thick syrup over two centuries.
CHAP. 40.—THE ANDRACHLE.977 → CHAP. 6.—THE MOST ANCIENT WINES.
Philosopher Androcydes warned Alexander that wine is earth's blood, acting as a vital tonic in moderation but deadly in excess. Roman censors regulated wine inflation by capping Greek imports at eight asses per measure to curb lavish banquets. Vintners sprinkle pine pitch into fermenting must within nine days to impart piquancy and bouquet. Second fermentations ruin fine vintages into worthless vappa, whereas sour vinegar provides essential culinary and medical uses.
CHAP. 7. (5.)—THE NATURE OF WINES. → CHAP. 25.
Cato recommends planting Licinian olives in cold soils to prevent oil corruption from excessive tree fertility. Harvesters must press fallen olives immediately in warm leaden vats, avoiding copper containers that spoil oil flavor. Exotic jujube trees climbed terrace walls across Italy after Sextus Papinius imported Syrian slips under Emperor Augustus. Wool-fruit apples from Verona grow covered in thick downy fuzz, marking another foreign botanical introduction.
CHAP. 26.—VINEGAR—LEES OF WINE. → CHAP. 14.
Roman citizens secured lasting fame by grafting innovative fruit varieties, producing Matian, Appian, and Scandian apples. Walnuts require a double protective shell around four internal kernel compartments, serving as traditional symbols at Fescennine wedding feasts. Green walnut shells yield durable wool dyes, while young unripe nuts stain human hands and hair deep red. Sorb fruits outrank walnuts in public esteem despite the smaller size of sorb harvests.
CHAP. 15.—THE FRUITS THAT HAVE BEEN MOST RECENTLY INTRODUCED.
Oak leaf civic crowns represent Rome's highest military honor, awarded for saving a fellow citizen's life during battle. Naval rostrate crowns adorned famous commanders like Marcus Varro and Marcus Agrippa for clearing pirate fleets from sea routes. Robur oaks produce caustic ball growths called cachrys alongside edible mushrooms that sprout around ancient roots. Celestial honeydew settles onto summer oak leaves, leaving sweet edible dew drops across forest foliage.
CHAP. 34.—THE VARIOUS NATURES OF FRUIT. → CHAP. 11.
Spanish peasants gather kermes berries from holm oaks to pay half their annual imperial tribute through crimson dyes. European charcoal burners extract dark tar by heating torch-wood billets inside sealed furnaces, producing water-like cedrium preservative. Mountain slopes nourish resinous larches, boxwoods, and cedars, whereas birch trees from cold Gaul furnish rods for Roman fasces. White thorn wood supplies traditional torches for wedding ceremonies, recalling early Sabine matrimonial rites.
CHAP. 12.—THE KERMES BERRY. → CHAP. 30.
Cypress and walnut trees wither in water, while willows, poplars, and alders require wet riverbanks to flourish. Sombre pines, larches, and holm oaks never produce spring blossoms, bearing fruit directly without floral displays. Fig trees present fruit above their large protective leaves, sprouting early crops known to Athenians as prodromos. Laconian fig varieties yield two complete harvests each year, demonstrating remarkable local adaptation.
CHAP. 31.—TREES WHICH GROW ON A DRY SOIL: THOSE WHICH ARE FOUND…
Wild fig trees on Cea island produce three distinct annual crops to perform natural caprification. Frantic grapevines bear blossoms, swelling grapes, and fully mature fruit simultaneously upon the same branch. Rare plants resist foreign acclimatization, as shown when King Seleucus failed to transport delicate Indian nard across desert routes. King Mithridates could not grow laurels or myrtles near the Cimmerian Bosporus despite cultivating fine apples and pears.
CHAP. 50. (27.)—TREES THAT BEAR TWO CROPS IN A YEAR.
Willows yield diverse materials, providing tall perches for grapevines, thin twigs for wicker basketry, and peeled bark for armchairs. Ancient outposts generate fire without flint by rapidly rubbing dry ivy wood against hard laurel timber. Aquatic woods like fig and lime contract instantly upon incision, making their light flexible timber ideal for military shields. Romulus planted a sacred lotus in the Vulcanal whose deep roots eventually reached Caesar's Forum.
CHAP. 68.—- THE WILLOW: EIGHT VARIETIES OF IT. → CHAP.
A sacred Vatican holm-oak bears Etruscan bronze lettering, proving its religious veneration before Rome's founding. Orator Lucius Crassus defended his palatial home by valuing six prized lotus trees at ten million sesterces. Censor Domitius Ahenobarbus withdrew his purchase offer when Crassus excluded the magnificent shade trees from the property deed. Those lotus trees survived for nearly two centuries until Emperor Nero burned Rome to the ground.
CHAP. 87.—TREES IN THE SUBURBAN DISTRICTS OLDER THAN THE CITY.
Chestnuts and walnuts require propagation from whole seeds, whereas fruit grown from pips degenerates rapidly and requires grafting. Denser foliage casts toxic water drops, requiring wide spacing between orchard rows to maintain soil health. Cato prescribes twenty-five feet between olive trees, while African growers leave seventy-five feet for massive milliariae specimens. Cuttings must be selected from fruitful trees, cut one foot long, and inserted root-end down into tilled soil.
CHAP. 10.—PLANTS WHICH ARE PROPAGATED BY SEED. → CHAP.
Cato directs planters to use three-foot olive slips, maintaining original bark alignment and keeping root earth intact during transplanting. Environmental portents include leafless trees, fruits sprouting directly on trunks, and Laodicean plane trees transforming into olives. Historical chronicles record speaking trees and Cumaean timber sinking into the earth prior to Pompey's civil war. Orchardists treat sickly trees with amurca, swine manure, and barley straw to prevent thunder damage during festivals.
CHAP. 29. (18.)—THE CULTIVATION OF THE OLIVE. → CHAP.
Pliny chronicles ancient insect behavior, human bodily anomalies, exotic botany, and early agricultural science.