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Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, bringing down Lord North's government in London and elevating British ministers willing to negotiate. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay secured generous peace terms in Paris, extending American borders to the Mississippi River. Yet political independence immediately created a perilous financial crisis and an uncertain political structure for the victory.
Thirteen distinct states emerged from the Revolution with deeply divergent economies, legal codes, and local loyalties. Northern maritime merchants and Southern plantation owners held conflicting visions of economic self-interest. Tariff disputes and border arguments between neighboring states quickly exposed the fragility of an alliance united only by a common enemy.
The Articles of Confederation created a weak central legislature without an executive head, a judiciary, or direct taxing power. Deprived of reliable revenue, Congress resorted to printing worthless paper money and struggled to satisfy unpaid continental soldiers. Foreign powers treated the loose league with contempt because it could not enforce treaties or regulate interstate commerce.
Severe economic depression and unpaid debts drove Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays to forcibly shut down county courts. Weak central authority proved completely unable to assist state militias in restoring public order. Great Britain refused to evacuate western frontier posts, while Spain closed the lower Mississippi River to western American traders.
Disputes over navigation rights along the Potomac River drew Virginia and Maryland together at Mount Vernon, sparking broader commercial meetings in Annapolis. Alexander Hamilton leveraged the Annapolis gathering to call for a constitutional convention in Philadelphia. Meanwhile, the Northwest Ordinance established a governance template for western territories, barring slavery and promising equal statehood.
Fifty-five delegates assembled in Philadelphia under George Washington to construct a functional national government. James Madison introduced the Virginia Plan for proportional representation, sparking fierce opposition from William Paterson and smaller states. Roger Sherman broke the impasse with the Great Compromise, creating a Senate representing states equally and a House based on population.
Ratification demanded approval from nine states, igniting a national debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay authored the Federalist Papers to defend the proposed constitution against fears of central tyranny. Promises to attach a Bill of Rights satisfied key state conventions, establishing a lasting federal republic.
Discover how economic turmoil and political chaos nearly destroyed the early American republic before the Constitution saved it.